(2002), ’Cicero’s Early Speeches’, in J. M. May (ed. secuti Baiter, Kayser, Mueller.Habent non modo apud ext. [53] Aspendum vetus oppidum etnobile in Pamphylia scitisesse, plenissimum signorumoptimorum.You know that Aspendus is an ancientand noble town in Pamphylia, ve… Other powerful supporters chipped in by embarking upon strategic intimidation of the Sicilian witnesses. THE ORATION FOR SEXTUS ROSCIUS OF AMERIA. In Verrem ("Against Verres") is a series of speeches made by Cicero in 70 BC, during the corruption and extortion trial of Gaius Verres, the former governor of Sicily.The speeches, which were concurrent with Cicero's election to the aedileship, paved the way for Cicero's public career. 22Cicero’s report of Verres’ looting of artworks and his narrative of the Lampsacus affair are both fraught with pathos, meant to generate indignation, if not downright outrage, at Verres’ conduct. In Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio Nasica, Lucius Cornelius Sisenna, and Quintus Hortensius Hortalus, the consul designate for 69 and a formidable public speaker, Verres managed to recruit a group of defence advocates brimming with nobility and talent. Cicero also knows how to underscore the reliability of his two prime witnesses: P. Tettius and C. Varro, who both served on the staff of Nero (§ 71). In outline, we have the following corpus: Divinatio in Caecilium [delivered January 70 BC]in Verrem 1 [delivered August 70 BC, during the actio prima]in Verrem 2 [planned for the actio secunda, but never delivered]in Verrem 2.1: Verres’ youth and public career prior to his governorship of Sicilyin Verrem 2.2: Sicily – abuse of judicial powerin Verrem 2.3: Sicily – extortion of taxesin Verrem 2.4: Sicily – robbery of artworksin Verrem 2.5: Sicily – Verres as magistrate with imperium, responsible for public safety and endowed with the power to punish, 14Cicero only decided to publish a selection of his speeches.16 The fact that he circulated all the speeches to do with the trial of Verres indicates his high opinion of the set and his belief in their value as documents of self-promotion. In addition, the portion of text under consideration here includes two paragraphs that are especially designed to appeal to the emotions. Thus Cicero does his best to depict Verres as a heinous and hardened criminal, with a particular penchant for debauchery from his early youth. 22 The classic treatment of ethos and pathos in ancient rhetoric is Wisse, J. Cicero, Against Verres, 2.1.53–86. ‛By chance’ (casu), a great number of embassies from the towns Verres had ravaged happened to be in Rome at the time, and Cicero describes heart-wrenching scenes of Greek ambassadors setting eyes on long lost treasures, often statues of gods and goddesses of profound religious value and significance, breaking down on the spot, in public, in worship and tears. Section 4 explores some pertinent issues in late republican history. . My name is Fadil Nohur, a.k.a. Section 1 provides a minimum of biographical information on Cicero and Verres. 2 non modo apud nos sed apud exteras nationes Harl. See also Kennedy, G. (1994), A New History of Classical Rhetoric, Princeton; and, for the afterlife of ancient rhetoric, Kennedy, G. (1980), Classical Rhetoric and its Christian and Secular Tradition from Ancient to Modern Times, Chapel Hill. Nōn dīcam illinc hoc signum ablātum esse et illud. When all is said and done, so Cicero claims repeatedly, Verres is unable to explain why what occurred did occur. If the setting is a court of law, the prosecutor tries to convince those who judge the case of the guilt of the defendant, whereas the advocate aims to achieve a verdict of innocence. ; 82: Nolite... cogere,... nisi vos vindicatis! quem omnia ‘intus canere’ dicebant: the antecedent of quem is citharistam; the relative pronoun quem is the subject accusative of the indirect statement introduced by dicebant; omnia is accusative object of canere. a story or narrative, from the technical term narratio, which is used of that part of a forensic speech in which the speaker sets out the facts of the case: see Levene, D. S. (2004), ’Reading Cicero’s Narratives’, in J. Powell and J. Paterson (eds. Pamphȳlia, -ae, [Παμφῡλία], f., Pamphȳlia, a narrow country on the south coast of Asia Minor, bounded on the east by Cilicia, on the north by Pisidia, and on the west by Lycia. Ver. 3The orations are brilliant models of eloquence (as well as spin) by arguably the supreme prose stylist ever to write in Latin. Get this from a library! 18 See Frazel, T. (2004), ’The Composition and Circulation of Cicero’s In Verrem’, Classical Quarterly n.s. 4 On Cicero and invective, see the papers in Booth, J. Pseudo-Asconius’ commentary on this passage is worth quoting in full since it brings out an otherwise obscure nuance of Cicero’s text:45, cum canunt citharistae, utriusque manus funguntur officio. It never reconvened: Verres considered the case that Cicero presented against him during the first hearing so compelling that he went into voluntary exile. 6Given the lack of independent evidence, one of the greatest challenges in dealing with Cicero’s orations against Verres is doing Verres justice. ACTIONIS IN C. VERREM SECVNDAE LIBER TERTIVS [1] Omnes qui alterum, iudices, nullis impulsi inimicitiis, nulla privatim laesi iniuria, nullo praemio adducti in iudicium rei publicae causa vocant providere debent non solum quid oneris in praesentia tollant, sed quantum in omnem vitam negoti suscipere conentur. The full power of the tribunes was restored. 26As fans of the 1980s British sitcom Yes Minister by Antony Jay and Jonathan Lynn will know, the personnel of modern democratic nation-states involved in government consists in part of publicly elected politicians, who are voted into (and out of) office from time to time, and the bureaucratic functionaries of the civil service, whose positions are permanent, i.e. This is in direct antithesis to the emphasis on the public despoiling (palam), which everyone witnessed as onlookers (omnibus spectantibus). 34 Lictors carried the fasces, a bundle of wooden sticks that symbolized the power of the office both domi and militiae (in the latter sphere, the fasces contained an axe). Such commissions could be either ad hoc or permanent (‛standing’). Sicily was the first, established in 241 BC, in the wake of the First Punic War. As already mentioned, Verres and his supporters tried to prolong the trial until the following year. [Ingo Gildenhard; Marcus Tullius Cicero] 7This is not to say that Verres was a particularly delightful human being. (2007), Cicero on the Attack: Invective and Subversion in the Orations and Beyond, Swansea. 27 For a highly readable and very stimulating account of how Rome became involved with the Greek world that includes all the important facts and figures with a hard look at scholarly orthodoxies, see Gruen, E. S. (2004), ’Rome and the Greek World’, in H. I. Throughout the Verrines (though not in the passage under consideration here) Cicero plays on a sense of constitutional crisis.38 It was part of a larger strategy ‛to make Verres’ guilt matter’, not least for purposes of self-promotion.39. 1, 2Ver. 24 On ethopoiea: Gildenhard (2011) 20-22 with much further bibliography. Whereas Verres and his ilk appear as villains and perverts, he lavishes praise upon the inhabitants of Lampsacus and in particular Philodamus and his son. Aspendium citharistam … quem omnia ‘intus canere’ dicebant: The cithara was a musical instrument similar to a lyre. In the years before their showdown in 70 BC, each of the two men spent time in the Greek East and in Sicily. nobile: the attribute strikes a note of pathos and, also from an etymological point of view [nosco + bilis], points forward to scitis: the city, Cicero claims, is so renowned that its prestige and location can count as common knowledge. 2.1), from which our passage comes, contains an exhaustive discussion of Verres’ career before he took on the governorship of Sicily. 129).14 With the actio prima completed on 13 August, the court adjourned for the Votive Games that began on 16 August (comperendinatio). In the main, however, Cicero built his career, and even more so his legacy, on supreme ability in the realms of language, literature, and thought. for corruption. 20 See Steel (2004) 251 for some comments on how Cicero employs the Lampsacus episode to prefigure events in Sicily. Paragraphs 63-69 contain an account of what happened when Verres visited the Greek city. Cicero Actionis secundae in C. Verrem Liber Quintus. (1993), Imperium Romanum. nat. Wenn ich bei euren Übersetzungen gucke, und bei Verrem 1,1 schaue, dann ist da ein ganz andrer Text. Hortensius, Cicero’s opponent, at the time; cf. A good account of educational practices in the late Roman republic can be found in Corbeill, A. Aspendum: located on the Southern coast of Turkey on the right bank of the river Eurymedon (between the modern tourist hotspots Antalya and Alanya), Aspendos was a significant centre of trade in ancient times, especially for salt, oil, grain, and wool; after the battle of Magnesia in 190 BC, it became part of the kingdom of Pergamum, which King Attalus III, at his death without heir, bequeathed to Rome in 133 BC. Not the least of their skills was the ability to think up procedural shenanigans to derail or at least delay the trial until the following year. (For deixis and the adjective ‘deictic’, which comes from the Greek deiktikos, meaning ‘able to show, showing directly’ see Morwood (1999) 151: ‘the use of words or expressions to point to some feature of a situation. 1 I follow the practice of the Oxford Latin Dictionary in referring to the speeches, but reference systems vary. And several ancient authors comment on the remarkable irony that Cicero and Verres died in the same year, proscribed by the same man – the former for his tongue, the latter for his art collection.8 A bare skeleton of their respective careers in the form of a table would look something like this: 10When the Sicilians turned to Rome for help against the plundering and extortion perpetrated by Verres, Cicero was a natural point of contact: he had been quaestor in Sicily only a few years earlier, knew the province well, had close ties with various leading locals, and saw himself as their patron.10 He agreed to act as the Sicilians’ legal representative, in what shaped up as a case for one of Rome’s ‛standing courts’, the so-called quaestio de repetundis.11 Because Roman officials enjoyed immunity from prosecution during their time in office, the trial could not start before Verres’ period as pro-magistrate finished at the end of 71 BC. The Verrines are full of magnificent passages that illustrate Cicero at his best: as a superb raconteur who generates a gripping story out of precious few facts; as a heavy-hitting cross-examiner who lays into his adversaries with a remorseless flurry of rhetorical questions; as a master in the projection or portrayal of character (so-called ethos or ethopoiea) and the manipulation of emotions (so-called pathos); and, not least, as a creative individual gifted with an impish imagination who knows how to entertain. Even in the case against Verres, where he acted as prosecutor, he stressed that he entered into the fray as an advocate of the Sicilians. Cicero’s main aim in this paragraph is to illustrate the magnitude of Verres’ greed, in particular how it manifests itself in comprehensive looting. (1984), Roman provincial administration, 227 BC to AD 117, Princeton; and Lintott, A. Time was precious: he was aware of the fact that the defence wanted to delay the trial until the following year. The staff included fairly high-ranking Romans with ambitions of entering the cursus honorum, that is, a political career involving magistracies and military commands. hoc dico, nullum te Aspendi signum, Verres, reliquisse: Cicero uses *homoioteleuton as a stylistic device to connect three main themes of the paragraph: (i) the town of Aspendos, (ii) its rich treasure of statues, and (iii) their plunder by Verres. 2 Settle, J. N. (1962), The publication of Cicero’s orations, Diss. ), Brill’s Companion to Cicero: Oratory and Rhetoric, Leiden, Boston, Cologne, 23-48. Thus he calls the period he requested for gathering evidence ‛astonishingly brief’ (Ver. Aspendioi kitharistai – that is, cithara-players of Aspendos – were known for their custom of playing the instrument, designed for both hands, with their left hand only, which was placed between the cithara and the player (hence intus), without using the right hand that held the plectron and was placed ‘outside’, facing the audience. or use a Roman numeral (Ver. Site Activity; Resources. [full essay], Aspendum vetus oppidum et nobile in Pamphylia scitis esse, plenissimum signorum optimorum. Cicero won the case against major resistance. 1In 70 BC, when Gnaeus Pompeius and Marcus Licinius Crassus shared the consulship for the first time, Rome’s rising star in oratory, Marcus Tullius Cicero, successfully prosecuted Gaius Verres on the charge of misconduct, especially extortion, during his term as governor of Sicily (73-71 BC). ; 72: andite, qnaeso, indices et... miseremini... et ostendite...! 9Overall, the careers of Cicero and Verres share a series of coincidental parallels that are fun to ponder. ; 86: accipite nnnc! ), Frankfurt a. M., 29-44; Edmondson, J. The gerundive phrase de repetundis means, literally, ‛about matters that need to be recovered’, so the quaestio de repetundis was a standing criminal court that heard cases of corruption or misconduct in office and concerned itself especially with the recovery of extorted money. In all of his published orations, Cicero maintains the illusion that the text is the record of a performance. 2.1.53 You know that Aspendus is an ancient and noble town in Pamphylia, full of very fine statues. 23Ver. Assignments were usually done by lot, but could also be ‛arranged’ by those who were entitled to take up a provincial governorship in any given year. The first such permanent criminal court or tribunal (quaestio perpetua) was the quaestio de repetundis, which was set up in 149 BC to deal with acts of embezzlement by Roman magistrates. Verres C. Verres, the governor of Sicily form 73 B.C. 10 Brunt, P. A. Jahrhundert n. Section 3 outlines the main modes of persuasion in (ancient) rhetoric and briefly indicates how Cicero applies them in our passage. The (fairly frequent) phenomenon of a relative pronoun assuming a twofold syntactic function is best illustrated by rephrasing the relative clause as a main clause: eum omnia ‘intus canere’ dicebant – ‘they used to say that he played all of his music inside’. Cicero presents the lurid details of Verres' alleged crimes in exquisite and sophisticated prose. 2.1 1–32 Introduction Some cite the five speeches designed for the second actio as 2Ver. I. Gildenhard, Cicero, Against Verres, 2.1.53–86: Latin Text with Introduction, Study Questions, Commentary and English Translation, OpenBook Publishers (www.openbookpublishers.com), Cambridge, 2011. praeter r et Burn. (1967), ’Verres and Judicial Corruption’, Classical Quarterly 17, 408-13; McDermott, W. C. (1977), ’The Verrine Jury’, Rheinisches Museum 120, 64-75. Non dicam: ‘an effective form of comparatio, rising from a lesser variety of wrongdoing to a greater’: Mitchell (1986) 185. hoc dico…: Latin authors frequently add a demonstrative pronoun to verbs of thinking and stating that introduce an accusative + infinitive construction to give special emphasis to the indirect statement: ‘This I say, namely that you…’ The feature gains in force and prominence here by way of contrast to the non-dicam clause, where Cicero does not use it. Cicero portrays Verres and Dolabella in such a way as to remove them from civilized society: they come across as beasts ruled either by their passions or even worse instincts such as delight in cruelty; the Lampsacenes, in contrast, represent a peace-loving community that cherishes private and public values dear to the Romans as well, such as devotion to family members, unselfish courage, and commitment to civic life. The traits Cicero emphasizes in the former are his murderous villainy and conspicuous stupidity, whereas the latter comes into Cicero’s rhetorical crosshairs for his yellow-bellied cowardice. 16 For those speeches that he decided not to disseminate in written form, see Crawford, J. W. (1984), M. Tullius Cicero: The Lost and Unpublished Orations, Göttingen. It covers a series of lurid incidents from an early stage of Verres’ career, which, so Cicero argues, all originated in the defendant’s insatiable lust for two primary sources of pleasure: art and sex. No clear consensus has emerged, not least since his practice will most likely have differed from case to case, ranging from almost instant release with only minor adjustments to significant revision and publication several years after the original delivery.17 The speeches that Cicero prepared for the second hearing belong to those that he anyway never gave, so here the question is moot.
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